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15-year study details origins, diversity of every known mineral

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A 15-year study led by the Carnegie Institution for Science details the origins and diversity of every known mineral on the Earth, a landmark body of work that will help reconstruct the history of life on the earth, guide the search for new minerals and ore deposits, predict possible characteristics of future life, and aid the search for habitable planets and extraterrestrial life.

In twin papers published by American Mineralogist and sponsored in part by NASA, Carnegie scientists Robert Hazen and Shaunna Morrison detail a novel approach to clustering (lumping) kindred species of minerals together or splitting off new species based on when and how they originated.

Once mineral genesis is factored in, the number of “mineral kinds” — a newly-coined term — totals more than 10,500, a number about 75 per cent greater than the roughly 6,000 mineral species recognized by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) on the basis of crystal structure and chemical composition alone.

“This work fundamentally changes our view of the diversity of minerals on the planet,” says Hazen, Staff Scientist with the Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington DC.

“For example, more than 80 per cent of earth’s minerals were mediated by water, which is, therefore, fundamentally important to mineral diversity on this planet. By extension, this explains one of the key reasons why the moon and mercury and even mars have far fewer mineral species than the earth.”

“The work also tells us something very profound about the role of biology,” he adds. “One third of earth’s minerals could not have formed without biology — shells and bones and teeth, or microbes, for example, or the vital indirect role of biology, such as by creating an oxygen-rich atmosphere that led to 2,000 minerals that wouldn’t have formed otherwise.”

“Each mineral specimen has a history. Each tells a story. Each is a time capsule that reveals earth’s past as nothing else can.”

According to the paper, nature created 40 per cent of earth’s mineral species in more than one way — for example, both abiotically and with a helping hand from cells — and in several cases used more than 15 different recipes to produce the same crystal structure and chemical composition.

Of the 5,659 recognized mineral species surveyed by Hazen and colleagues, nine came into being via 15 or more different physical, chemical and/or biological processes — everything from near-instantaneous formation by lightning or meteor strikes, to changes caused by water-rock interactions or transformations at high pressures and temperature spanning hundreds of millions of years.

And, as if to show she has a sense of humour, nature has used 21 different ways over the last 4.5 billion years to create pyrite (aka Fool’s Gold) — the mineral world’s champion of diverse origins.

Pyrite forms at high temperature and low, with and without water, with the help of microbes and in harsh environments where life plays no role whatsoever.

Composed of one part iron to two parts sulfide (FeS2), pyrite is derived and delivered via meteorites, volcanoes, hydrothermal deposits, by pressure between layers of rock, near-surface rock weathering, microbially-precipitated deposits, several mining-associated processes, including coal mine fires, and many other means.

To reach their conclusions, Hazen and Morrison built a database of every known process of formation of every known mineral.

Relying on large, open-access mineral databases, amplified by thousands of primary research articles on the geology of mineral localities around the world, they identified 10,556 different combinations of minerals and modes of formation, detailed in the paper, “On the paragenetic modes of minerals: A mineral evolution perspective.”

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Bakra Eid: UP Police on high alert, proactive measures in place to ensure communal harmony

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New Delhi, June 6: Ahead of Bakra Eid celebrations on Saturday, the Uttar Pradesh Police are on high alert, taking proactive steps to maintain communal harmony and ensure peaceful festivities across the state. Security arrangements have been tightened in districts like Meerut, Aligarh, Etawah, and Ghazipur with the deployment of the Rapid Action Force (RAF), Provincial Armed Constabulary (PAC), and Local Intelligence Unit (LIU) teams.

In Meerut, Senior Superintendent of Police (SSP) Vipin Tada said: “Meerut police are on alert for Bakra Eid. A control room has been set up for real-time monitoring. Both the SSP and the District Magistrate will oversee the operations. Central Peace Committee have been held with members of all communities. PAC, civil police, and LIU teams have been deployed for security arrangements. Social media activity is being closely monitored, and strict action will be taken against those spreading misinformation. Prayers in public places, sacrifice of banned animals, and open-air sacrifices are prohibited.”

In Aligarh, similar measures are being enforced.

Deputy Commissioner of Police (DCP) Mayank Pathak said: “We are making stringent security arrangements for Bakra Eid. Additional forces, including two companies of RAF and PAC, are being deployed. Personnel from various police stations and Circle Officers (COs) will also be present on the ground. Surveillance is being conducted to monitor criminal or mischievous activities. Drone cameras will be used to monitor key areas. Intelligence and LIU are providing moment-to-moment updates. Those posting inflammatory or objectionable content on social media will face strict action.”

In Etawah, the police have finalised their strategy for smooth celebrations.

SSP Brijesh Kumar Srivastava said: “We have convened a Central Peace Committee meeting involving key stakeholders from both communities. The district has been divided into zones and sectors, with responsibilities assigned to police personnel and magistrates. All officials will remain on patrol to ensure the festival is celebrated peacefully.”

In Ghazipur, Superintendent of Police Iraj Raja said: “During the Central Peace Committee meeting, clear instructions were given: sacrifices must not be carried out in open spaces, and prayers should not be offered in public areas. The sacrifice of banned animals is strictly prohibited. Anyone violating these guidelines will face action as per government directives. Security arrangements have been completed across both urban and rural areas. Magistrates and police officers will be deployed from the morning prayers until late at night to ensure the safety of the celebrations.”

Eid al-Adha, also known as Bakra Eid, Bakrid, Eid Qurban, or Qurban Bayarami, is one of the most significant festivals in Islam. Observed in the month of Zul Hijjah, the 12th month of the Islamic lunar calendar, it commemorates Prophet Ibrahim’s willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience to God.

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Rahul Gandhi meets family of ‘Mountain Man’ in Bihar

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Patna, June 6: Congress leader Rahul Gandhi visited Dashrath Nagar village in Gaya district on Friday as part of his outreach efforts in Bihar ahead of the Assembly elections.

During his visit, he met the family of the late Dashrath Manjhi, popularly known as the “Mountain Man” for single-handedly carving a path through a hill in Gehlor village to connect it with Wajirganj block in the district.

Rahul Gandhi was received warmly by Bhagirath Manjhi, son of Dashrath Manjhi, who welcomed him with traditional hospitality.

The Congress leader sat with the family, shared coconut water, and listened to their concerns, including their financial hardships.

According to sources, Bhagirath Manjhi also expressed his interest in contesting the upcoming Bihar Assembly election from the Bodh Gaya constituency, though no official announcement was made.

Following his meeting in Dashrath Nagar, Gandhi proceeded to Gehlor village, where he garlanded the statue of Dashrath Manjhi as a mark of respect.

He was accompanied by Bhagirath Manjhi and later departed for Rajgir to attend a scheduled programme.

Earlier in the day, Gandhi landed at Gaya Airport, where he was welcomed by Congress leaders and supporters.

This marks Rahul Gandhi’s sixth visit to Bihar in 2025, so far, signalling a renewed push to strengthen the Congress’ presence at the grassroots level in the run-up to the Assembly elections.

Rahul Gandhi’s recent engagements in the state reflect the Congress party’s strategy to reconnect with local icons, marginalised communities, and symbolic figures, in an attempt to regain political ground in the state

Following his visit to Gaya, Rahul is scheduled to travel to Rajgir in Nalanda district to attend a Samvidhan Sammelan and return to Gaya to attend a ‘Mahila Samvad’ (Women’s Dialogue) programme and visit Mahabodhi temple in Bodh Gaya, as part of his outreach to marginalised communities and women across the state.

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SC allows NBE to schedule NEET-PG 2025 exam on August 3

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New Delhi, June 6: The Supreme Court on Friday allowed an application filed by the National Board of Examinations (NBE) seeking permission to schedule the National Eligibility-cum-Entrance Test (NEET)-PG 2025 on August 3.

A Bench of Justices Prashant Kumar Mishra and Augustine George Masih took note of the submission that August 3 was the earliest possible available date given by its technology partner for conducting the NEET-PG 2025 examination in terms of the recent apex court order.

Allowing the application filed by the NBE to conduct the NEET-PG 2025 examination on August 3, the Justice Mishra-led Bench clarified that no further time extension will be allowed by the top court.

In an order passed on May 30, the Supreme Court deprecated the practice of conducting the NEET-PG exam in two shifts and opined that holding the examination in two shifts leads to arbitrariness and cannot give a level playing field to the candidates.

It ordered the NBE to make necessary arrangements for holding the NEET-PG 2025 examination in one shift, duly ensuring that complete transparency is maintained and secure centres are identified and commissioned.

“The question papers in two shifts can never be of the same difficulty level. Last year, it (NEET-PG 2024) may have been held in two shifts in the facts and circumstances of that stage. But the examining body ought to have considered making arrangements for holding the examination in one shift,” the Supreme Court had remarked.

The apex court was dealing with a clutch of petitions challenging the lack of transparency in the conduct of the NEET-PG examination.

In their plea filed before the apex court, NEET-PG aspirants claimed that the introduction of two shifts, normalisation method, and change in the tie-breaker criterion affected medical students adversely. The petitioners said that NEET-PG had never been held in two shifts before and had always remained a single-shift and single-day examination to ensure a uniform examination standard and fairness of the national test.

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