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15-year study details origins, diversity of every known mineral

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A 15-year study led by the Carnegie Institution for Science details the origins and diversity of every known mineral on the Earth, a landmark body of work that will help reconstruct the history of life on the earth, guide the search for new minerals and ore deposits, predict possible characteristics of future life, and aid the search for habitable planets and extraterrestrial life.

In twin papers published by American Mineralogist and sponsored in part by NASA, Carnegie scientists Robert Hazen and Shaunna Morrison detail a novel approach to clustering (lumping) kindred species of minerals together or splitting off new species based on when and how they originated.

Once mineral genesis is factored in, the number of “mineral kinds” — a newly-coined term — totals more than 10,500, a number about 75 per cent greater than the roughly 6,000 mineral species recognized by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) on the basis of crystal structure and chemical composition alone.

“This work fundamentally changes our view of the diversity of minerals on the planet,” says Hazen, Staff Scientist with the Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington DC.

“For example, more than 80 per cent of earth’s minerals were mediated by water, which is, therefore, fundamentally important to mineral diversity on this planet. By extension, this explains one of the key reasons why the moon and mercury and even mars have far fewer mineral species than the earth.”

“The work also tells us something very profound about the role of biology,” he adds. “One third of earth’s minerals could not have formed without biology — shells and bones and teeth, or microbes, for example, or the vital indirect role of biology, such as by creating an oxygen-rich atmosphere that led to 2,000 minerals that wouldn’t have formed otherwise.”

“Each mineral specimen has a history. Each tells a story. Each is a time capsule that reveals earth’s past as nothing else can.”

According to the paper, nature created 40 per cent of earth’s mineral species in more than one way — for example, both abiotically and with a helping hand from cells — and in several cases used more than 15 different recipes to produce the same crystal structure and chemical composition.

Of the 5,659 recognized mineral species surveyed by Hazen and colleagues, nine came into being via 15 or more different physical, chemical and/or biological processes — everything from near-instantaneous formation by lightning or meteor strikes, to changes caused by water-rock interactions or transformations at high pressures and temperature spanning hundreds of millions of years.

And, as if to show she has a sense of humour, nature has used 21 different ways over the last 4.5 billion years to create pyrite (aka Fool’s Gold) — the mineral world’s champion of diverse origins.

Pyrite forms at high temperature and low, with and without water, with the help of microbes and in harsh environments where life plays no role whatsoever.

Composed of one part iron to two parts sulfide (FeS2), pyrite is derived and delivered via meteorites, volcanoes, hydrothermal deposits, by pressure between layers of rock, near-surface rock weathering, microbially-precipitated deposits, several mining-associated processes, including coal mine fires, and many other means.

To reach their conclusions, Hazen and Morrison built a database of every known process of formation of every known mineral.

Relying on large, open-access mineral databases, amplified by thousands of primary research articles on the geology of mineral localities around the world, they identified 10,556 different combinations of minerals and modes of formation, detailed in the paper, “On the paragenetic modes of minerals: A mineral evolution perspective.”

Crime

Arrested Pakistani national was spying on Indian Army, Navy, Railways in Bengal (Lead)

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Kolkata, Aug 12: Wahab Alam, the Pakistani national arrested in West Bengal’s North 24 Parganas district, was sent by Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) to collect information about the Indian Army, Navy and Railways in the eastern sector of the country.

Alam was arrested in the Habra area of the district.

Insiders from the state police said that during the marathon interrogation by the sleuths of the Special Task Force (STF) of the state police, he had admitted that he entered India through the India-Nepal border in 2012 and has since been staying in different pockets of the state, shifting bases from time to time.

After his arrest, the STF sleuths also seized forged Indian identity documents from his possession, like an Aadhaar card, PAN card and EPIC card. It is learnt that he managed these forged identity documents through another person, Muhammad Izaz, who was also arrested by the STF in the Topsia area in East Kolkata following Alam’s interrogation.

In fact, state police insiders said that before shifting to Habra, from where he had been arrested, Alam used to stay at Izaz’s residence in Topsia. However, as per information collected by the STF sleuths, he left the Topsia area immediately after the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise started in West Bengal earlier this year before the recently concluded Assembly polls.

STF sleuths found that Alam was probably planning to flee to neighbouring Bangladesh, and hence decided to shift to Habra, which is fairly close to the India-Bangladesh border. The STF sleuths are currently interrogating Alam and Izaz to know about their other associates in the state.

Interrogation is also ongoing to find out the kind of information that Alam has already passed on to his handlers in Pakistan.

Reacting to media persons on the arrest of the Pakistani national, the state Municipal Affairs and Urban Development Minister, Agnimitra Paul, said that such elements could make their roots deeper in West Bengal because of the “nurturing by the previous Trinamool Congress regime”.

“My appeal to people is to be alert. If any suspicious persons or any suspicious activity is detected in your locality, kindly contact the local police station immediately,” she said.

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HM Shah requests LS Speaker to consult Oppn for students’ protest debate

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New Delhi, Aug 12: Union Home Minister Amit Shah on Wednesday wrote to Lok Sabha Speaker Om Birla urging him to consult with the Opposition parties for a discussion on the NEET students’ protest, stating that in a democratic nation, “solutions emerge only through discussion and dialogue”.

He also reaffirmed his commitment to remain present in the Lok Sabha when the debate is scheduled and is willing to answer every question raised by the Opposition.

In his letter, HM Shah said: “You are aware that the Hon’ble Minister of Parliamentary Affairs, Shri Kiren Rijiju, has agreed on behalf of the Government, during the Business Advisory Committee meeting, to a discussion in Parliament regarding the student protests concerning the NEET examination.”

He mentioned that even before the Opposition’s request, the Public Examinations (Prevention of Unfair Means) Amendment Bill, 2026, was discussed in the Parliament; however, “no Hon’ble Member of Parliament from the Opposition expressed any views regarding the NEET examination in the House at that time”.

Nevertheless, he said that the Centre is ready to discuss this issue again.

“I request you to consult with the Opposition and, based on mutual agreement, allocate as much time, whether in terms of days or hours, as you deem appropriate, starting today. I intend to remain present in the House during the scheduled time to participate in the discussion on this matter and am prepared to answer all questions raised by the Opposition,” the Home Minister said.

“In a democracy, solutions emerge only through discussion and dialogue. I have unwavering faith in democracy and democratic institutions, and I believe that this House exists precisely for the purpose of discussion and dialogue,” he added.

“Therefore, I urge you to consult with Opposition leaders and facilitate a discussion on this important subject in a constructive atmosphere, so that all Hon’ble Members, from both the Treasury and Opposition benches, may present their valuable opinions and views,” HM Shah added.

This comes against the backdrop of the Opposition’s questions over the Home Minister’s “absence” from the House. The Opposition has sought a statement on the police action against students who participated in the protest march. The standoff has led to repeated disruptions.

Earlier in the day, speaking to reporters on the Parliament premises, Home Minister Shah hit back at the Opposition over allegations that he was avoiding the Parliament and said that he had been regularly attending the ongoing Monsoon Session.

HM Shah said that Union Parliamentary Affairs Minister Rijiju had already made it clear that the government was prepared to hold a detailed discussion on the protests by students. He said the government had accepted the Opposition’s original demand for a discussion and maintained that he himself had made it clear that he was prepared to answer questions on the matter in the Parliament.

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Akhilesh Yadav alleges FCRA Bill aimed at targeting minorities; Opposition demands withdrawal

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New Delhi, Aug 12: Samajwadi Party chief and MP, Akhilesh Yadav, on Wednesday alleged that the proposed amendments to the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) were aimed at targeting minorities and accused the NDA government of introducing the legislation to serve its own interests.

Speaking to reporters, Yadav questioned the need for the amendment to the Bill and criticised the government’s performance on infrastructure projects.

“Why do they want to bring the FCRA amendments? Is it only to suppress minorities? Is it only to serve their own interests? You are building airports, yet they get flooded with water. You are constructing expressways, yet there are potholes. What are you doing?” he said.

Drawing a comparison between governance and the recent aviation controversy, Yadav added, “Hume plane chalane walon aur pradesh chalane walon mein samanta dikhai de rahi hai.”

Samajwadi Party MP, Awadhesh Prasad, also raised concerns over the proposed legislation, saying that laws should not be enacted without clear intent and practical implementation.

“If the government’s intention is not right, then there is no point in passing such a Bill. There are many laws that have been passed but are not being implemented properly and remain ineffective in practice,” he said.

Another Samajwadi Party leader, MP Ram Gopal Yadav, argued that there was no need for the proposed amendments. He said voluntary organisations, religious organisations especially missionaries and NGOs have played a significant role in providing education, health and welfare services in several parts of the country, including tribal regions.

“There was no need to bring this Bill in the first place. In states such as Jharkhand, in the Dang region of Gujarat and in other tribal areas, the work done by missionaries, voluntary organisations and NGOs has often been greater than what governments have achieved. Restricting them would deprive millions of poor children of education and other essential services,” he said.

CPI MP, P. Santhosh Kumar, said the Opposition had demanded that the Bill be referred to a Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC).

“There is no necessity for these amendments. However, referring the Bill to a JPC was one of the major demands raised by Opposition parties. Since the BJP will have a majority in the committee, we do not expect any positive outcome,” he said.

RSP MP, N.K. Premachandran, reiterated his party’s demand for the withdrawal of the Bill.

“Our consistent stand has been that the FCRA Bill should be withdrawn. The government is now proposing to send it to a Joint Parliamentary Committee, but the purpose of the Bill appears to be to exercise greater control over charitable organisations, NGOs and institutions run by minority communities,” he said.

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