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15-year study details origins, diversity of every known mineral

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A 15-year study led by the Carnegie Institution for Science details the origins and diversity of every known mineral on the Earth, a landmark body of work that will help reconstruct the history of life on the earth, guide the search for new minerals and ore deposits, predict possible characteristics of future life, and aid the search for habitable planets and extraterrestrial life.

In twin papers published by American Mineralogist and sponsored in part by NASA, Carnegie scientists Robert Hazen and Shaunna Morrison detail a novel approach to clustering (lumping) kindred species of minerals together or splitting off new species based on when and how they originated.

Once mineral genesis is factored in, the number of “mineral kinds” — a newly-coined term — totals more than 10,500, a number about 75 per cent greater than the roughly 6,000 mineral species recognized by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) on the basis of crystal structure and chemical composition alone.

“This work fundamentally changes our view of the diversity of minerals on the planet,” says Hazen, Staff Scientist with the Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington DC.

“For example, more than 80 per cent of earth’s minerals were mediated by water, which is, therefore, fundamentally important to mineral diversity on this planet. By extension, this explains one of the key reasons why the moon and mercury and even mars have far fewer mineral species than the earth.”

“The work also tells us something very profound about the role of biology,” he adds. “One third of earth’s minerals could not have formed without biology — shells and bones and teeth, or microbes, for example, or the vital indirect role of biology, such as by creating an oxygen-rich atmosphere that led to 2,000 minerals that wouldn’t have formed otherwise.”

“Each mineral specimen has a history. Each tells a story. Each is a time capsule that reveals earth’s past as nothing else can.”

According to the paper, nature created 40 per cent of earth’s mineral species in more than one way — for example, both abiotically and with a helping hand from cells — and in several cases used more than 15 different recipes to produce the same crystal structure and chemical composition.

Of the 5,659 recognized mineral species surveyed by Hazen and colleagues, nine came into being via 15 or more different physical, chemical and/or biological processes — everything from near-instantaneous formation by lightning or meteor strikes, to changes caused by water-rock interactions or transformations at high pressures and temperature spanning hundreds of millions of years.

And, as if to show she has a sense of humour, nature has used 21 different ways over the last 4.5 billion years to create pyrite (aka Fool’s Gold) — the mineral world’s champion of diverse origins.

Pyrite forms at high temperature and low, with and without water, with the help of microbes and in harsh environments where life plays no role whatsoever.

Composed of one part iron to two parts sulfide (FeS2), pyrite is derived and delivered via meteorites, volcanoes, hydrothermal deposits, by pressure between layers of rock, near-surface rock weathering, microbially-precipitated deposits, several mining-associated processes, including coal mine fires, and many other means.

To reach their conclusions, Hazen and Morrison built a database of every known process of formation of every known mineral.

Relying on large, open-access mineral databases, amplified by thousands of primary research articles on the geology of mineral localities around the world, they identified 10,556 different combinations of minerals and modes of formation, detailed in the paper, “On the paragenetic modes of minerals: A mineral evolution perspective.”

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Mumbai Air Quality Improving, BMC Claims As Crackdown On Polluting Sites Intensifies Across City

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Mumbai: air quality has shown a marked improvement over the past few days, with the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation attributing the positive trend to strict enforcement of pollution-control measures across the city and suburbs. Officials said the Air Quality Index has been consistently improving since 26 November 2025, with the most significant progress recorded in the last forty-eight hours.

Wind speed, which had remained low at around three to four kilometres per hour until 28 November, has now increased to between ten and eighteen kilometres per hour, aiding the dispersal of pollutants.

Municipal Commissioner and Administrator Bhushan Gagrani has directed that enforcement continue without pause against private construction sites and government projects found violating pollution norms. Several sites have already been served stop work notices for non-compliance with the earlier twenty-eight-point guideline.

Gagrani clarified that the Graded Response Action Plan Stage 4 is currently not applicable to Mumbai. However, the corporation has intensified monitoring to ensure that all pollution-control directives continue to be implemented firmly.

To ensure widespread compliance, the BMC has deployed ninety four mobile squads across every administrative ward. These teams are inspecting private construction sites and major public works such as road and metro projects. They are also checking sensor based AQI monitoring devices installed at construction locations and issuing notices whenever irregularities are detected.

Additional Municipal Commissioner Ashwini Joshi is overseeing the daily execution of these measures.

Gagrani said the civic body is carrying out multiple pollution-control initiatives simultaneously. These include converting bakeries and crematoriums to cleaner fuels, using misting machines for dust suppression, washing major roads, and conducting large scale cleanliness drives. Public awareness campaigns are also underway to discourage waste burning and encourage compliance among citizens.

The Mumbai Port Authority has reportedly acted upon BMC’s request to stop bonfires within its premises, which were contributing to local pollution levels.

The BMC reiterated that the improvement in Mumbai’s AQI is the result of coordinated efforts on multiple fronts. With wind conditions now favourable, the civic body stressed the need for continued discipline from all stakeholders.

Gagrani urged private, government, and semi government project heads to adhere strictly to pollution-control guidelines. He appealed to bakeries to shift to clean fuels at the earliest and requested citizens to support the corporation by avoiding open waste burning.

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RS adjourned till 2 pm amid Oppn’s renewed uproar over SIR

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New Delhi, Dec 2: The Rajya Sabha, India’s Upper House of Parliament, witnessed a brief but intense session on Tuesday morning before being adjourned until 2 p.m., as opposition members intensified their protests over the Election Commission’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls.

The adjournment, coming just 20 minutes into proceedings, underscored the deepening impasse in the Winter Session, now in its second day, where demands for debate on alleged voter disenfranchisement have overshadowed legislative business.

Chairman C.P. Radhakrishnan, who assumed office in September, called the House to order at 11 a.m., but was immediately met with slogan-shouting from the Opposition benches.

Led by Congress chief Mallikarjun Kharge and allies from the INDIA bloc — including Trinamool Congress, DMK, and AAP — members trooped into the Well of the House, brandishing placards reading “Vote Chor, Gaddi Chod (Vote Thief, Quit the Throne)”.

They renewed calls for an urgent discussion under Rule 267 on the SIR process, underway in 12 states and union territories ahead of the 2026 Assembly elections, claiming it has led to over 30 deaths among Booth Level Officers (BLOs) and the wrongful deletion of millions of names, particularly from marginalised communities.

Kharge, invoking Monday’s unresolved notices, accused the government of “saving itself at democracy’s expense”.

“We submitted detailed notices yesterday — names, subjects, everything — but they were ignored. Thirty lives lost, families shattered, and you have ignored it all,” he said.

From the Treasury side, Leader of House J.P. Nadda urged restraint, promising consultations. “The Chair will decide; let’s not derail the session. Multiple bills await,” he said.

Parliamentary Affairs Minister Kiren Rijiju, however, fired back with a mix of plea and provocation, “You’re fixated on one issue when the nation grapples with floods, jobs, and security. Elections you lose, anger you vent here — focus on governance, not grandstanding.”

His remark drew sharp rebuttals, with Trinamool Congress’ Derek O’Brien retorting, “We’re fighting for votes, not vengeance; your delays are the real drama.”

Chairman Radhakrishnan, maintaining his characteristic calm, appealed for order multiple times, warning against disruptions. Meanwhile, the routine business continued amid uproar and sloganeering. The chairman again pleaded with the opposition members to maintain order, but din persisted, forcing the adjournment till 2 p.m.

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Entertainment

Telangana minister threatens to stop release of Pawan Kalyan’s films over ‘insulting’ remark

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Hyderabad, Dec 2: Telangana Cinematography Minister Komatireddy Venkat Reddy on Tuesday warned that Andhra Pradesh Deputy Chief Minister Pawan Kalyan’s movies will not be allowed to be released in theatres in Telangana if he fails to apologise over his “insulting” remarks about Telangana.

He told media persons that screening of Pawan Kalyan’s films will be permitted only after he tenders an unconditional apology for his remarks.

“If Pawan Kalyan apologises, his movies will be screened at least for a couple of days, but if he fails to apologise, his films will not release anywhere in Telangana. I am saying this as the minister for cinematography,” said Venkat Reddy, who also holds the portfolio of roads and buildings.

The minister clarified that the issue is not related to megastar Chiranjeevi, who is elder brother of Pawan Kalyan. “Chiranjeevi is a sober man. He always stays away from controversies,” he said.

He remarked that Pawan Kalyan is new to politics and, after becoming the Deputy Chief Minister, he had been making “controversial” statements.

The minister said that at a time when Telangana completed 12 years, and entered into the 13th year, Pawan Kalyan made the “insulting” remarks.

The Andhra Pradesh Deputy Chief Minister had recently blamed the “evil eye” for “dying” coconut trees in the development of the Konaseema region, known for lush green fields.

The Jana Sena leader, who visited the region last week to inspect the coconut trees damaged by seawater from a drain, blamed it on “evil eye”. He was apparently referring to the bifurcation of the state.

His remarks have evoked a strong reaction from leaders in Telangana.

Animal Husbandry Minister Vakati Srihari said that Pawan Kalyan was “unable to digest” the tremendous development of Telangana.

He remarked that the Andhra Pradesh Deputy CM “lacks” maturity.

Srihari alleged that the Jana Sena leader was making such statements for political mileage and demanded that he immediately take back his words.

Congress MLA from Jadcherla J. Anirudh Reddy demanded that Pawan Kalyan tender an unconditional apology.

“If Telangana has cast an evil eye on Godavari and Konaseema, why is Pawan Kalyan staying in Hyderabad?” he asked.

Anirudh Reddy told Pawan Kalyan to sell his properties in Hyderabad and shift to Vijayawada.

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